Extraction Techniques: From Tradition to Innovation
Introduction to Fragrance Extraction
The history of fragrance extraction is a rich interplay of ancient craftsmanship and modern technology. From the earliest cold-press methods used by ancient civilizations to today’s supercritical CO₂ techniques, perfumers have continuously sought better ways to capture and preserve the aromatic essence of raw materials.
This overview outlines the most significant extraction methods used in perfumery—highlighting their principles, materials, and resulting products.
Traditional Extraction Techniques
Cold Expression (Cold Pressing)
Cold extraction is a mechanical process exclusively used for citrus peels (e.g., bergamot, lemon, orange). It involves:
Scraping
Pressing
Centrifugation
These physical actions rupture the oil glands within the peel, releasing essential oils. This technique yields citrus essences, which are widely used in top notes due to their volatile freshness.
Enfleurage (Cold and Hot Fat Absorption)
Enfleurage is an ancient method based on the fat’s capacity to absorb aromatic compounds. Petals (e.g., tuberose, jasmine) are layered onto a sheet of glass (chassis) coated with odorless fat:
Cold enfleurage: Fat remains solid
Hot enfleurage: Fat is gently heated
The process is repeated 30–40 times until the fat is saturated with aroma. The result is a pomade, which is then washed with ethanol to extract the absolute de pomade.
Historical context:
Originated in 9th-century Persia (e.g., rose enfleurage on sesame oil)
Introduced in France during the 17th century
Peaked in 19th-century Grasse, with alcohol washing refinement
Material use: Each frame typically requires 30–100 g of flowers.
Water Distillation
In water distillation, aromatic plant material is immersed directly in boiling water. The steam generated carries the essential oil, which later condenses and separates based on density:
The upper layer: essential oil
The water layer: aromatic hydrosol (e.g., rose water)
This method is especially suited for delicate flowers and herbs.
Steam Distillation
A refinement of the previous method, steam distillation involves placing plant material on a perforated grid above boiling water. Only the steam, not the water itself, interacts with the material, allowing:
Gentler treatment
Higher yield of essential oils or fractions thereof
This technique is widely used for lavender, rosemary, and damask rose.
Modern Extraction Techniques
Solvent Extraction
A dominant technique in contemporary perfumery, solvent extraction uses volatile organic solvents (e.g., hexane, ethanol) to dissolve aromatic compounds from fresh or dry material.
Products obtained include:
Concrete: A waxy aromatic mass (from flowers or fresh material)
Resinoid: Derived from balsams, gums, resins, or dry botanicals
Absolute: Obtained after alcohol extraction of the concrete or resinoid
This method preserves heat-sensitive compounds and is ideal for jasmine, rose, and oakmoss.
Molecular Distillation
This technique refines existing extracts using vacuum distillation at low temperatures and organic solvents. Applications include:
Removal of color
Elimination of waxes or impurities
Fractionation of essential oils
The result: more transparent, purified extracts. Often labeled with “MD” (Molecularly Distilled).
CO₂ Extraction (Supercritical Fluid Extraction - SFE)
Among the most advanced and sustainable methods, CO₂ extraction uses supercritical carbon dioxide—a fluid state between gas and liquid—under controlled low temperature (32°C) and high pressure (73 bar).
Advantages:
No solvent residues
No heat degradation
Extremely pure output
The result: CO₂ extracts or absolutes, ideal for spices, roots, and dry botanicals. Environmentally safe and suitable for capturing delicate or volatile aroma molecules.
Maceration Techniques
Infusion and Tincture
These methods are used for slow-maturing or animal-derived raw materials:
Infusion: Warm ethanol extracts aromatic compounds
Tincture: Cold ethanol is used
Commonly applied to:
Botanicals: Tonka beans, vanilla pods, orris root
Animalics: Castoreum, civet, musk, ambergris
After maceration, the liquid is filtered to yield a natural tincture, which can be used directly or blended into a base.
Sources:
Fulvio Ciccolo, "La grammatica dei profumi", 2020
Scentspiracy Research
Peer-reviewed literature on aromatic extraction and essential oil production